English: Class 8 — Chapter 2: Unit 2: Values and Dispositions

• Context: In August 1947, Pakistan launched Operation Gulmarg to annex Kashmir, violating an agreement with Maharaja Hari Singh.
• The Threat: Around 500 tribal infiltrators aimed to capture the strategic Srinagar airport.
• The Defense: Major Somnath Sharma led the D Company of the 4th Battalion, Kumaon Regiment (90 men) to defend the airfield.
• The Action: Despite having his left hand in plaster, Major Sharma insisted on leading his men. Outnumbered seven to one, he directed air strikes, filled ammunition magazines, and rallied his troops.
• The Ultimate Sacrifice: While helping a machine gunner, his position was hit by a mortar shell, killing him instantly. His final words were: "I shall not withdraw an inch but will fight to the last man and the last round."
• Outcome: His company held the position for over six hours, delaying the enemy until reinforcements arrived, saving Srinagar.

• Background: Born on January 31, 1923, in Kangra, Himachal Pradesh, to a distinguished military family. His father was Major General Amar Nath Sharma.
• Influences: Deeply inspired by the valorous tales of the Mahabharata told by his grandfather.
• Education: Studied at Sherwood College, Nainital, and trained at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst.
• Legacy: Awarded the Param Vir Chakra posthumously. His name is etched on the Honour Wall of the National War Memorial.

• etched: permanently fixed in memory
• beacon: a source of light or inspiration
• valour: great courage in the face of danger
• infiltrators: people who secretly enter or invade a territory
• annex: to take possession of a territory
• combat: fighting between armed forces
• eerily: in a strange, frightening, or mysterious way
• resolute: admirably purposeful, determined, and unwavering
• tenacity: the quality of being very determined; determination
• conspicuous: clearly visible; attracting notice

An old, ragged woman stands helpless at a busy, wet crossing on a cold winter day. Crowds of people pass her by without notice. A group of schoolboys runs out of school, laughing and playing. While most ignore her, one cheerful boy stops, offers his arm, and safely guides her across the slippery street. He later tells his friends that she is "somebody's mother" and hopes someone will help his own mother when she is old and he is far away. That night, the old woman prays for the noble boy.

• Simile: Comparing boys to a flock of sheep ("Came the boys like a flock of sheep").
• Alliteration: Repetition of consonant sounds ("wet with a recent snow", "safe and strong").
• Repetition: The phrase "Somebody's mother" is repeated to emphasize the universal bond of motherhood and empathy.
• Imagery: Vivid descriptions of the cold winter day ("wet with a recent snow", "ragged and grey") to evoke sympathy.

• The Value of Writing: Letters are lasting possessions that can be treasured, unlike the fleeting joy of instant telephone calls.
• Service to the Nation: Dr. Kurien chose to work for a small cooperative of dairy farmers in Anand, Gujarat, rather than pursuing lucrative careers in metallurgy, the Army, or moving to the US.
• Integrity: Defined as being honest to oneself. Personal integrity makes it effortless to be honest with others.
• The Common Good: Life is a privilege; failure is not about not succeeding, but about not putting in your best effort to contribute to society.
• True Happiness: Happiness does not depend on external circumstances or comparing oneself to others, but on cherishing what we have.

• fleeting: lasting for a very short time
• abiding pleasure: a feeling of happiness that continues for a long time
• jottings: brief notes written down quickly
• humility: the quality of having a modest view of one's importance
• ardently: very enthusiastically or passionately
• poise: graceful and elegant bearing in a person
• musings: a period of reflection or thought

Verbs must agree with their subjects in number (singular or plural).

• Rule 1: Collective nouns (like battalion, contingent, bouquet) usually take singular verbs when acting as a single unit.
  Example: The bouquet of flowers is beautiful. (Not "are")
• Rule 2: When subjects are joined by neither... nor or either... or, the verb agrees with the closer subject.
  Example: Neither the teacher nor the students were aware of the change.
• Rule 3: Words like each, everyone, one of take singular verbs.
  Example: One of the players was injured.

• En Dash (–): Used to represent a span or range of numbers, dates, or time.
  Example: The conference will be held from March 15–March 20.
• Em Dash (—): Used to add extra information, create a strong pause, or show a change in thought.
  Example: Writing—even if it is a letter—conveys our deepest thoughts.

• It's vs. Its: It's is a contraction of "it is" or "it has". Its is a possessive pronoun.
  Example: It's raining, and the dog wagged its tail.
• You're vs. Your: You're is a contraction of "you are". Your indicates possession.
  Example: You're going to love your new book.
• They're vs. Their: They're is a contraction of "they are". Their indicates possession.
  Example: They're celebrating their victory.

A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun. It provides extra details about time, place, manner, or direction.

• Example: The children played happily in the playground.
• Example: Nisha placed the vase on the table.