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Fine Arts: Class 11 — Chapter 4: Post-Mauryan Trends in Indian Art and Architecture

1. Historical Context and Major Art Centres

From the second century BCE onwards, various powerful dynasties established political control over the vast territories of the fragmented Mauryan Empire. This period is also socio-religiously significant for the institutional rise of major Brahmanical sects, primarily the Vaishnavas and the Shaivas.

Dynastic Distribution and Regional Hegemony
  • Northern and Central India: Controlled sequentially by the Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas, and Guptas.
  • Southern and Western India: Governed by the Satavahanas, Ikshvakus, Abhiras, and Vakatakas.

Prominent Lithic and Sculptural Sites

Masterpieces of post-Mauryan sculptural execution are distributed across several major regional centers:

  • Vidisha and Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh)
  • Bodhgaya (Bihar)
  • Jaggayyapeta (Andhra Pradesh)
  • Mathura (Uttar Pradesh)
  • Khandagiri-Udaigiri (Odisha)
  • Bhaja near Pune and Pavani near Nagpur (Maharashtra)
2. The Bharhut Sculptural Style

Bharhut sculptures are characterized by their tall posture, echoing the monumental proportions of Mauryan Yaksha and Yakshini figures. However, their stylistic execution represents an earlier stage of lithic carving.

Stylistic and Technical Characteristics
  • Low-Relief Modeling: Sculptural volume is executed in low relief, strongly maintaining a strict flatness and linearity where images closely adhere to the picture plane.
  • Tilted Perspective: Spatial depth and the illusion of three-dimensionality in narrative panels are ingeniously achieved through a tilted perspective.
  • Narrative Progression: Early panels select only core events with fewer characters. Over time, space is maximized by adding secondary figures alongside the main protagonist, frequently clubbing multiple chronological events within a single geographical frame.
  • Stiffness and Anatomy: Initial phases reveal a general rigidity in limbs. Due to shallow carving, hands and feet could not project naturally; hands are carved flat, clinging directly to the chest, while feet appear in awkward, flat positions. Later phases transition into deep carvings, pronounced volumetric mass, and naturalistic anatomy.
  • Consistent Iconographic Markers: A defining and highly consistent feature across all male sculptures of the 1st–2nd centuries BCE is the elaborate, intricate knotted headgear.

Key Narrative Relief Panels
  • Queen Mayadevi's Dream: Depicts the mother of Siddhartha Gautama reclining on a couch while a majestic elephant descends from the top frame, heading directly towards her womb.
  • Ruru Jataka: Illustrates the Bodhisattva deer rescuing a drowning man on its back. In the same pictorial frame, the ungrateful rescued man points an accusing finger at the deer, leading the King and his army who are shown ready to shoot an arrow at the sacred creature.
3. Sanchi Stupa-1 (The Great Stupa) Evolution

Sanchi (located about 50 km from Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh) represents the peak of post-Mauryan Buddhist monastic architecture and narrative layout. Originally built as a modest brick structure by Ashoka, it was significantly expanded, covered with stone casing, and adorned with elaborate vedikas and gateways.

Structural Components of the Stupa
  • Anda: The massive semi-circular dome forming the core of the stupa monument.
  • Medhi: The elevated circular terrace supporting the Anda, used for circumambulation.
  • Vedika: The stone balustrade or railing enclosing the sacred space. Stupa-1 uniquely features both a lower and an upper pradakshinapatha (circumambulatory path).
  • Harmika & Chhatri: The square railed balcony atop the dome (Harmika) from which emerges a central shaft supporting a multi-tiered ceremonial umbrella structure (Chhatri).
  • Torana: Four monumentally carved gateways facing the cardinal directions. Each torana consists of two massive vertical pillars supporting three curved horizontal crossbars on top. Every surface is tightly packed with high-relief narrative carvings. The extended ends of the lowermost horizontal crossbars are structurally supported by delicate sculptures of bracket figures holding tree branches, known as Shalbhanjikas. The southern gateway was erected first.

Aesthetic and Sculptural Mastery
  • Volumetric Depth: Transitioning away from Bharhut's flatness, Sanchi compositions use thick, high relief, projecting heads and bodies dynamically into the picture space.
  • Fluid Naturalism: Rigidity is entirely replaced by fluid contouring and organic movement of human and animal forms. Historical events—such as the Siege of Kushinara, Buddha's visit to Kapilavastu, and Ashoka's pilgrimage to the Ramgrama Stupa—are rendered with complex, accurate details.
  • Aniconic Tradition: Buddha is strictly represented through symbolic markers, including an empty throne, sacred footprints, a chhatra, or stupas.
4. The Three Great Schools: Mathura, Gandhara, and Sarnath

By the first century CE, Mathura in northern India, Gandhara in the northwest frontier, and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh emerged as revolutionary hubs of art production where the Buddha was successfully anthropomorphized, transitioning from aniconic symbols to human form.

Comparative Analysis of Major Sculptural Schools
Aesthetic Criterion Mathura School Gandhara School Sarnath School
Stylistic Origins & Influences Purely indigenous; evolved directly from the early Mauryan/Shunga Yaksha models. Spread to sites like Sanghol in Punjab. Eclectic confluence of Greco-Roman, Bactrian, Parthian, and local northwestern traditions. Developed in the late 4th–5th century CE by synthesizing Mathura's volumetric mass with local Sarnath refinement.
Physiognomy & Modeling Round, smiling faces with fleshy cheeks. Broad shoulders, masculine torsos, and a robust, earthy posture. Hellenistic features; sharp, straight nose, elongated earlobes, idealized Greco-Roman musculature, and deep eye-sockets. Slender, elongated, perfectly proportioned torsos. Round faces with half-closed eyes representing meditative peace (Nibbana).
Drapery & Robes (Sanghati) Opaque, thin robes covering only the left shoulder (ekansha) with prominent, heavily carved, repetitive fold lines. Thick, heavy, woolen robes draped in the style of a Roman toga, featuring deep, realistic, complex folds. Completely smooth, ultra-thin transparent robes draped over both shoulders, clinging to the flesh with zero fold lines.
Halo Ornamentation Massive halos profusely embellished with elaborate concentric geometric and floral bands. Halos are moderately sized, completely plain, and unornamented, emphasizing the facial expression. Halos feature a pristine, plain central zone contrasted against delicately carved outermost floral/creeper borders.
Religious & Iconographic Scope Highly diverse; produced massive Buddhist, early Jain Tirthankara, Shaiva (mukhalingas), and Vaishnava icons alongside royal portraiture (e.g., headless Kanishka statue). Primarily Buddhist; focused heavily on complex life narratives, Jataka scenes, and heavily jeweled, crowned Bodhisattvas. Exclusively Buddhist; focused on advanced spiritual expressions, particularly the definitive turning of the wheel of law.

Kushana Seated Buddha (Katra Mound, Mathura)

A second-century CE masterpiece carved in spotted red sandstone, representing early Mathura idioms:

  • Posture & Mudra: Seated in padmasana (cross-legged) on a lion throne. The right hand is raised above the shoulder in abhayamudra (gesture of fearlessness); the left hand rests firmly on the thigh.
  • Anatomical Rendering: Broad chest, fleshy cheeks, and a vertically raised hair knot (Ushnisha). The thin robe leaves the right shoulder bare, reducing its volume to fit the torso contour.
  • Attendants: Flanked by two crowned, standing Bodhisattvas identified as Padmapani (holding a lotus) and Vajrapani (holding a thunderbolt). Two flying celestials hover dynamically above the heavily carved halo.

Gupta Seated Buddha (Sarnath Site Museum)

A late fifth-century CE iconic sculpture carved from Chunar sandstone, representing the peak of classical Indian art:

  • Iconography: Seated in padmasana, holding the hands before the chest in the complex dhammachakrapravartana mudra (preaching the first sermon).
  • Throne Base Panel: The lower pedestal features a centrally carved wheel (Dhammachakra) flanked by a pair of deer and the five original disciples bowing in reverence.
  • Aesthetic Refinement: Slender, elongated body lines with a perfectly smooth, transparent robe. The face shows delicate roundness, a protruding lower lip, and downcast, half-closed eyes indicating absolute inner calm. The large halo is plain in the center with concentric floral edges.
5. Southern Buddhist Monuments (Vengi Region)

The Vengi region in Andhra Pradesh (along the Krishna-Godavari basin) became a highly active zone for stupa construction, housing major centers like Jaggayyapeta, Amaravati, Bhattiprolu, Nagarjunkonda, and Goli.

The Amaravati Mahachaitya Style
  • Sculpted Drum Slabs: Unlike northern stupas, the circular dome of the Amaravati Stupa was completely encased in uniquely sculpted relief limestone slabs, creating a glittering white finish.
  • Tribhanga Posture: Figures are exceedingly slender, elongated, and arranged in the highly flexible, dynamic tribhanga (triple-bent) posture, which completely eliminates structural staticness.
  • Complex Overlapping: Spatial depth is masterfully achieved by placing figures in highly animated, overlapping arrangements across multiple planes (full back views, profile, three-fourth views).
  • Evolutionary Tiers: Erection began in the 3rd century BCE but peaked in the 1st–2nd centuries CE under Satavahana patronage. It transitioned from purely aniconic symbols to regular human representations of Buddha on the drum panels.
  • Other Southern Innovations: Nagarjunkonda and Goli (3rd century CE) reduced figure animation but maintained subtle body volume. Sannati in Karnataka is the largest excavated stupa in the Deccan, featuring relief drum slabs identical to Amaravati. Guntapalle near Eluru features early circular and apsidal rock-cut chaitya halls from the 2nd century BCE, while Anakapalle near Vishakhapatnam houses the largest monolithic rock-cut stupas in India, dating to the 4th–5th centuries CE.
6. Western Indian Rock-Cut Cave Tradition

From the second century BCE onwards, a prolific rock-cut cave architecture tradition flourished along the Sahyadri mountains of Western India. These excavations were categorized into three distinct plan designs:

  1. Apsidal vault-roofed chaitya halls with internal pillars (found at Ajanta, Bhaja, and Pitalkhora).
  2. Apsidal vault-roofed pillarless halls (found at Thana-Nadsur).
  3. Flat-roofed quadrangular halls with a rear circular shrine chamber (found at Kondivite).

Structural Layout of Chaityas and Viharas
  • Chaitya Halls: Dedicated prayer and worship halls housing a monolithic rock-cut stupa at the rear. The facade is dominated by a semi-circular chaitya arch window, which originally held a functional wooden framework. Under the Western Kshatrapas and Satavahanas (1st century BCE), the apsidal plan transitioned into a rectangular layout with a stone-screen wall facade, as seen in Ajanta Cave-9, Bedsa, Nashik, and Karla.
  • The Karla Chaitya: The largest completed rock-cut chaitya hall in India. Features an open courtyard with two massive freestanding lion-headed pillars, a protective rain screen wall, a columned porch, and a colossal apsidal vaulted hall lined with pillars topped by heavy, high-relief human and animal sculptures moving rhythmically in space.
  • Viharas: Monastic residential monasteries consisting of a central quadrangular hall lined with small living cells for monks, preceded by a veranda porch. Early viharas (Ajanta Cave-12, Bhaja Cave-11, Nashik Caves-3, 10, 17) featured miniature decorative chaitya arches and vedika rail patterns carved over cell doorways. Nashik verandas introduce massive pillars carved with ghata-base and ghata-capitals topped by human figures. Junnar houses the largest concentration with over 200 caves, while Kanheri has 108 distinct rock-cut excavations.
7. The Masterpieces of Ajanta and Elephanta

Ajanta Caves (Aurangabad, Maharashtra)

Ajanta consists of 29 rock-cut caves under Vakataka patronage, preserving the only surviving mural paintings of ancient India across two distinct phases:

  • Early Phase (Caves 9 and 10): Dated to the 1st century BCE. Figures are broad, heavy, and arranged horizontally in linear tiers. Lines are sharp, colors are limited, and scenes like the Chaddanta Jataka use architectural bands to separate geographical spaces (jungle vs. palace).
  • Late Phase (Caves 1, 2, 16, 17): Dated to the late 5th–early 6th centuries CE under Vakataka King Harishena's court officials (e.g., Varahadeva for Cave-16, Upendragupta for Caves-17–20). Characterized by advanced linear rhythm, half-closed elongated eyes, and 'outward projections' where body colors bleed into contours to generate rounded volume.
  • Padmapani Bodhisattva (Cave-1 Mural): Standard shrine guardian. Features broad shoulders, a rounded torso, and a delicate triple-bent (tribhanga) posture. Wears a highly detailed jeweled crown and a beaded necklace. Shading on the nose, cheeks, and a protruding lower lip creates a clear three-dimensional volume. Holds a blue lotus (padma) in his right hand. Flanked on the opposite side by a matching mural of Vajrapani Bodhisattva.

Elephanta Caves (Mumbai, Maharashtra)

A sixth-century CE island cave complex dedicated exclusively to the Puranic narratives of Shaivism, contemporary with Ellora's rock-cut phase:

  • Maheshmurti: Carved in high relief on the southern wall of the main cave shrine, this monumental bust represents the three-headed integration of Shiva. The central face is round and serene with thick lips, heavy eyelids, and a protruding lower lip representing Shiva as the all-inclusive creator. The right head (in profile) features a fierce mustache, angry eyes, and third-eye lines representing Bhairova (the destroyer). The left head displays soft, feminine features representing Uma (consort/creator). Shilpa texts prescribe five integrated heads, leaving the top and back faces iconographically invisible.