Geography: Class 12 (Part 2) — Chapter 5: Mineral and Energy Resources

A mineral is a natural substance of organic or inorganic origin with definite chemical and physical properties.

• The North-Eastern Plateau Region: Covers Chhotanagpur (Jharkhand), Odisha Plateau, West Bengal, and parts of Chhattisgarh. Rich in iron ore, coal, manganese, bauxite, and mica.
• The South-Western Plateau Region: Extends over Karnataka, Goa, contiguous Tamil Nadu uplands, and Kerala. Rich in ferrous metals, bauxite, high-grade iron ore, manganese, and limestone. Lacks coal except Neyveli lignite. Kerala has monazite and thorium deposits.
• The North-Western Region: Extends along the Aravali in Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat. Minerals are associated with the Dharwar system of rocks. Copper and zinc are major minerals. Rajasthan is rich in building stones (sandstone, granite, marble), gypsum, and Fuller's earth. Gujarat is known for petroleum deposits. Both states have rich salt sources.
• The Himalayan Belt: Another mineral belt containing copper, lead, zinc, cobalt, and tungsten.

Ferrous minerals provide a strong base for the development of metallurgical industries in India.

• Iron Ore: India has the largest reserve of iron ore in Asia. The two main types are haematite and magnetite. About 95% of total reserves are located in Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. Key mines include Gurumahisani, Sulaipet, Badampahar (Odisha); Noamundi and Gua (Jharkhand); Bailadila (Chhattisgarh); and Kudremukh (Karnataka).
• Manganese: An important raw material for smelting iron ore and manufacturing ferro-alloys. Mainly associated with the Dharwar system. Leading producers are Madhya Pradesh and Odisha. Major mines in Odisha are located in Bonai, Kendujhar, Sundergarh, Gangpur, Koraput, Kalahandi, and Bolangir.

India is poorly endowed with non-ferrous metallic minerals except bauxite.

• Bauxite: The ore used in manufacturing aluminium. Found in tertiary deposits associated with laterite rocks. Odisha is the largest producer (Kalahandi, Sambalpur, Bolangir, Koraput). Other producers include Jharkhand (Lohardaga), Gujarat (Bhavanagar, Jamnagar), Chhattisgarh (Amarkantak plateau), Madhya Pradesh (Katni-Jabalpur), and Maharashtra.
• Copper: Indispensable in the electrical industry for making wires, motors, transformers, and generators. Highly alloyable, malleable, and ductile. Major deposits occur in Singhbhum (Jharkhand), Balaghat (Madhya Pradesh), and Jhunjhunu and Alwar (Rajasthan).

Mainly used in electrical and electronic industries due to its ability to be split into thin, tough, and flexible sheets. Produced in Jharkhand (Hazaribagh plateau), Andhra Pradesh (Nellore district - produces best quality), and Rajasthan (Jaipur to Bhilwara belt).

• Coal: Used mainly for thermal power generation and smelting iron ore. Occurs in Gondwana and Tertiary rock sequences. About 80% of coal in India is of bituminous type and non-coking grade. Major Gondwana fields are in Damodar Valley (Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih). Tertiary coals occur in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, and Nagaland. Lignite (brown coal) occurs in coastal areas of Tamil Nadu (Neyveli), Puducherry, Gujarat, and Jammu & Kashmir.
• Petroleum: Referred to as "liquid gold". Occurs in sedimentary rocks of the tertiary period. Systematic exploration began after the ONGC was set up in 1956. Major oilfields include Digboi, Naharkatiya, and Moran in Assam; Ankaleshwar, Kalol, Mehsana in Gujarat; and Mumbai High (discovered in 1973). Refineries are classified as field-based (e.g., Digboi) or market-based (e.g., Barauni).
• Natural Gas: Found with petroleum deposits. Major reserves are in Mumbai High, Cambay basin, and Krishna-Godavari basin. Used as domestic/industrial fuel and transport fuel (CNG).

Sustainable, renewable, and eco-friendly energy resources.

• Nuclear Energy: Uses uranium (found in Dharwar rocks, Singhbhum Copper belt, Rajasthan) and thorium (obtained from monazite sands in Kerala and Tamil Nadu). Key nuclear power stations include Tarapur (Maharashtra), Rawatbhata (Rajasthan), Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (Uttar Pradesh), Kaiga (Karnataka), and Kakrapar (Gujarat).
• Solar Energy: Tapped using photovoltaics and solar thermal technology. Western India (Gujarat and Rajasthan) has immense potential.
• Wind Energy: Pollution-free and inexhaustible. Favourable conditions exist in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Karnataka.
• Tidal and Wave Energy: Great potential along the west coast of India, though not yet fully utilized.
• Geothermal Energy: Tapped from underground heat/hot springs. A geothermal plant has been commissioned at Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh.
• Bio-energy: Derived from biological products (agricultural residues, municipal/industrial waste). Example project: Okhla in Delhi.