History: Class 12 (Book 2) — Chapter 3: An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara

• In 1800, Colonel Colin Mackenzie , an engineer, surveyor, and cartographer, brought the ruins of Hampi to light.
• As an employee of the English East India Company, Mackenzie prepared the first survey map of the site.
• Initial information was gathered from the oral memories of priests at the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi .
• In 1815, Mackenzie was appointed the first Surveyor General of India, a post he held until his death in 1821.

"By studying Vijayanagara, Mackenzie believed that the East India Company could gain much useful information on many of these institutions, laws and customs whose influence still prevails among the various Tribes of Natives forming the general mass of the population to this day."

---

Analytical Historical Context & Interpretation: Mackenzie's survey was not merely antiquarian; it was deeply tied to colonial governance. By understanding local historical institutions, the East India Company sought to establish administrative legitimacy and make the governance of the colony easier.

• From 1856, photographers began recording the monuments, enabling scholars to study them systematically.
• As early as 1836, epigraphists began collecting several dozen inscriptions found at Hampi's temples.
• Historians reconstructed the empire's history by collating archaeological finds with accounts of foreign travelers and literature in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, and Sanskrit.

• The empire was founded in 1336 by two brothers, Harihara and Bukka .
• Contemporaries referred to the empire as the karnataka samrajyamu .
• The kings competed with the Sultans of the Deccan and the Gajapati rulers of Orissa for control of the fertile Krishna-Tungabhadra doab and overseas trade.
• Interaction between these states led to a significant sharing of ideas, particularly in the field of architecture.

• Military strength depended heavily on effective cavalry; hence, the import of horses from Arabia and Central Asia was highly critical.
• This trade was initially controlled by Arab merchants and local traders known as kudirai chettis (horse merchants).
• In 1498, the Portuguese arrived on the west coast, introducing superior military technology, including muskets, which altered the regional balance of power.
• Vijayanagara was famous for its markets dealing in spices, textiles, and precious stones, reflecting a wealthy population demanding high-value exotic goods.

"A king should improve the harbours of his country and so encourage its commerce that horses, elephants, precious gems, sandalwood, pearls and other articles are freely imported... Make the merchants of distant foreign countries... be attached to yourself by providing them with daily audience, presents and allowing decent profits."

---

Analytical Historical Context & Interpretation: Written by Krishnadeva Raya in his Telugu treatise on statecraft, the Amuktamalyada , this passage highlights the strategic link between commerce and military preparedness. Securing high-quality war horses and elephants through trade alliances directly prevented these critical resources from falling into the hands of rival Deccan Sultanates.

• The empire reached its peak under Krishnadeva Raya , characterized by expansion, consolidation, and unparalleled peace and prosperity.
• In 1565, the chief minister Rama Raya led the army into the Battle of Rakshasi-Tangadi (Talikota), where his forces were routed by the combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, and Golconda. The victorious armies sacked and completely destroyed the city of Vijayanagara.

• The amara-nayaka system was a major political innovation, likely derived from the iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate.
• The amara-nayakas were military commanders given territories to govern by the raya.
• They collected taxes from peasants, craftspersons, and traders, retaining a portion for personal use, temple maintenance, and maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants.
• These contingents provided the Vijayanagara kings with an effective fighting force to control the southern peninsula.
• They sent annual tribute to the king and personally appeared in court with gifts to express loyalty, though many established independent kingdoms in the 17th century, hastening imperial collapse.

• The city is situated in the natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra , surrounded by stunning granite hills.
• As one of the most arid zones of the peninsula, elaborate arrangements were made to store rainwater.
• The Kamalapuram tank , built in the early 15th century, irrigated nearby fields and conducted water to the "royal centre" via a channel.
• The Hiriya canal drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra to irrigate the cultivated valley separating the sacred centre from the urban core.

"The king made a tank... at the mouth of two hills so that all the water which comes from either one side or the other collects there... In order to make this tank the said king broke down a hill... I saw so many people at work that there must have been fifteen or twenty thousand men..."

---

Analytical Historical Context & Interpretation: Recorded by Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes , this description of a tank built by Krishnadeva Raya highlights the massive mobilization of labor and advanced hydraulic engineering required to sustain a large urban population in an arid landscape.

• The Persian ambassador Abdur Razzaq was greatly impressed by the city's fortifications, noting seven lines of forts.
• These walls encircled not only the city but also its agricultural hinterland and forests, a strategic defense mechanism designed to survive long medieval sieges.
• No mortar or cementing agent was used; wedge-shaped stone blocks were held in place by gravity, with the inner walls packed with earth and rubble.
• Gateways featured distinctive Indo-Islamic architectural elements, such as arches and domes, introduced by the Turkish Sultans.
• Roads wound through valleys to avoid rocky terrain, extending from temple gateways and lined with bustling bazaars.

• Archaeological evidence, including fine Chinese porcelain, suggests that the north-eastern corner of the urban core was occupied by wealthy traders and served as the Muslim residential quarter.
• Tombs and mosques located here feature architecture resembling the mandapas of Hampi's temples.
• Ordinary houses, which have not survived, were described by Duarte Barbosa as being thatched but well-built and arranged in long streets according to occupation.

• The "king's palace" features two impressive platforms: the "audience hall" and the mahanavami dibba .
• The mahanavami dibba is a massive platform rising from a base of about 11,000 sq. ft to a height of 40 ft, covered with intricate relief carvings.
• Rituals associated with this structure coincided with the ten-day Hindu autumn festival, known as Mahanavami, Dusehra, Durga Puja, or Navaratri.
• The ceremonies included worship of the image, the state horse, animal sacrifices, dances, wrestling matches, and grand processions of caparisoned elephants and soldiers.
• On the final day, the king inspected his army and the armies of the nayakas in a grand ceremony, receiving rich gifts and tributes.

"These buildings have two platforms one above the other, beautifully sculpted... On the upper platform... in this House of Victory the king has a room made of cloth... where the idol has a shrine..."

---

Analytical Historical Context & Interpretation: Domingo Paes refers to the audience hall and mahanavami dibba collectively as the "House of Victory." This space was the ultimate theater of state power, where the king displayed his prestige, military suzerainty, and divine legitimacy to subordinate chiefs and foreign visitors.

• The Lotus Mahal , named by British travelers, was likely a council chamber where the king met his advisers.
• The Elephant stables , located close to the Lotus Mahal, feature a series of domed chambers designed to house the royal war elephants.
• The Hazara Rama temple was a spectacular shrine meant exclusively for the king and his family, featuring sculpted panels depicting scenes from the Ramayana on its inner walls.

• The hills were associated with the monkey kingdom of Vali and Sugriva from the Ramayana.
• Local tradition holds that the mother goddess Pampadevi did penance here to marry Virupaksha (a form of Shiva), a marriage celebrated annually to this day.
• The Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha, signing all royal orders as "Shri Virupaksha" in the Kannada script.
• They used the title Hindu Suratrana (Sanskritised version of "Hindu Sultan") to assert their authority.

• Temple architecture under Vijayanagara introduced structures of immense scale, such as the raya gopurams (royal gateways) that dwarfed the central shrines.
• Other features included mandapas (pavilions) and long, pillared corridors running around the shrines.
• The Virupaksha temple was enlarged over centuries; Krishnadeva Raya built the hall in front of the main shrine to mark his accession and constructed the eastern gopuram.
• The Vitthala temple featured Vitthala, a form of Vishnu worshipped in Maharashtra, showcasing the integration of diverse regional traditions. It is famous for its unique stone chariot and wide chariot streets lined with pillared pavilions for merchants.

• In the 1980s, a major project was launched by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and the Karnataka Department of Archaeology and Museums to document the site.
• The entire area was divided into a grid of 25 squares, each designated by a letter of the alphabet (excluding 'I' to avoid confusion).
• Each square was further subdivided into smaller squares and units to meticulously record every trace of roads, paths, bazaars, and shrines.

"Going forward, you have a broad and beautiful street... In this street live many merchants, and there you will find all sorts of rubies, and diamonds, and emeralds, and pearls... and every other sort of thing there is on earth... the markets were overflowing with abundance of fruits... and meat..."

---

Analytical Historical Context & Interpretation: Descriptions by Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz portray Vijayanagara as a global commercial hub. The abundance of high-value luxury goods (gems, pearls) alongside cheap, plentiful food provisions highlights a highly organized economy supported by a prosperous agricultural hinterland and active international trade networks.