History: Class 12 (Book 3) — Chapter 3: Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement: Civil Disobedience and Beyond

In January 1915, Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi returned to India after two decades in South Africa, which historian Chandran Devanesan termed the making of the Mahatma . In South Africa, Gandhi forged satyagraha (non-violent protest), promoted inter-religious harmony, and challenged caste and gender discrimination.

• State of India in 1915: Far more politically active than in 1893. The Indian National Congress had expanded its base through the Swadeshi Movement (1905-07).
• Political Factions: Militant nationalists known as Lal, Bal, and Pal (Bal Gangadhar Tilak of Maharashtra, Bipin Chandra Pal of Bengal, Lala Lajpat Rai of Punjab) advocated direct opposition, while "Moderates" like Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Mohammad Ali Jinnah favored gradual constitutional methods.
• Gokhale's Advice: Gandhi spent his first year traveling across British India to understand the land and its people.

Gandhi's first major public appearance was at the opening of Banaras Hindu University (BHU) in February 1916. Rather than adopting a self-congratulatory tone, he delivered a sharp critique of the Indian elite.

• Critique of Elite Nationalism: Pointed out the contrast between "richly bedecked noblemen" and the absent "millions of the poor" Indians.
• Statement of Intent: Declared that "there is no salvation for India unless you strip yourself of this jewellery and hold it in trust for your countrymen." He asserted that India's salvation could only come through the peasants and farmers, marking his intent to make Indian nationalism a mass movement.

Gandhi put his principles into practice through three localized struggles, establishing his reputation as a champion of the poor:

1. Champaran Satyagraha (1917): Intervened in Bihar to secure security of tenure and freedom of crop choice for peasants oppressed by British indigo planters.
2. Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918): Led a successful intervention in a labor dispute, demanding better working conditions and wages for textile mill workers in Gujarat.
3. Kheda Satyagraha (1918): Supported peasants in Gujarat demanding the remission of land revenue taxes following a severe harvest failure.

In 1919, the colonial government extended wartime emergency measures through the Rowlatt Act , which permitted detention without trial and press censorship.

• Rowlatt Satyagraha: Gandhi launched a countrywide campaign. Life came to a standstill in North and West India through a successful bandh (strike).
• Punjab Protests: Protests were exceptionally intense in Punjab. Gandhi was detained, and local Congress leaders were arrested.
• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 1919): A peaceful nationalist meeting in Amritsar was fired upon by troops under British Brigadier-General Dyer, killing over 400 people. This tragedy catalyzed Gandhi's transition into a truly national leader.

To broaden the anti-colonial struggle, Gandhi coupled the Non-Cooperation Movement with the Khilafat Movement , led by Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali , which sought to restore the Turkish Caliphate.

• Methods of Protest: Renunciation of voluntary association with the British government. Students boycotted government schools, lawyers boycotted courts, and working classes went on strike (396 strikes in 1921 involving 600,000 workers).
• Rural Discontent: Hill tribes in Andhra violated forest laws, farmers in Awadh refused taxes, and peasants in Kumaun refused to carry loads for colonial officials.
• Chauri Chaura Incident (February 1922): A violent clash occurred in Chauri Chaura (United Provinces) where a peasant mob torched a police station, killing several constables. Gandhi immediately called off the movement, declaring that no provocation justified brutal violence.
• Trial and Imprisonment: Gandhi was arrested in March 1922 and charged with sedition. Judge C.N. Broomfield sentenced him to six years' imprisonment, while paying tribute to him as a "great patriot and leader."

By 1922, Gandhi had transformed Indian nationalism from an elite professional movement into a mass phenomenon. He identified with the common people through deliberate symbolic choices:

• Dress: Discarded Western suits and formal Indian attire for a simple dhoti or loincloth.
• The Charkha (Spinning Wheel): Spent part of each day spinning yarn. The charkha became a powerful symbol of self-reliance, manual labor, and a critique of modern industrial machinery that displaced human labor.
• Peasant Perceptions: Known as "Gandhi Baba" or "Mahatma," peasants viewed him as a savior who would rescue them from high taxes and oppressive officials. Rumors of his miraculous powers (e.g., crops turning to sesamum, opponents' houses catching fire) circulated widely.

Gandhi's mass appeal was supported by systematic organizational reforms within the Congress:

• Linguistic Provincial Committees: Congress committees were organized on the basis of linguistic regions rather than colonial administrative boundaries.
• Mother Tongue Communication: Nationalist messages were communicated in local vernacular languages rather than English.
• Praja Mandals : Established to promote nationalist ideas in the princely states.
• Diverse Support Base: Attracted both poor peasants and wealthy industrialists (such as G.D. Birla ), alongside a highly talented cadre of leaders including Jawaharlal Nehru , Vallabh Bhai Patel , Subhas Chandra Bose , and Abul Kalam Azad .

After focusing on social reform (promoting khadi , fighting untouchability, and fostering Hindu-Muslim unity) from 1924 to 1928, Gandhi re-entered active politics.

• Simon Commission (1928): An all-White commission sent from England to suggest constitutional reforms, sparking nationwide protests.
• Lahore Congress (December 1929): Under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru, the Congress proclaimed its commitment to Purna Swaraj (complete independence). January 26, 1930, was celebrated as Independence Day.
• The Salt Monopoly: Gandhi targeted the state monopoly on salt, an indispensable household item. The law forbade Indians from collecting or making salt, forcing them to buy it at high tax rates.

On March 12, 1930, Gandhi began a 240-mile march from his ashram at Sabarmati to the coastal village of Dandi. On April 6, 1930, he broke the law by manufacturing a handful of salt.

• Global Impact: Widely covered by the international press, including *Time* magazine, which initially mocked Gandhi's physical frame but later praised him as a "Saint and Statesman."
• Women's Participation: Socialist activist Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay persuaded Gandhi to allow women to join the protests. Thousands of women courted arrest by breaking salt and liquor laws.
• Colonial Response: The British administration arrested nearly 60,000 individuals, including Gandhi.

The Salt Satyagraha forced the British to negotiate with Indian leaders on equal terms through a series of Round Table Conferences in London.

• Gandhi-Irwin Pact (March 1931): Civil disobedience was suspended, political prisoners were released, and salt manufacture was permitted along the coast in exchange for Gandhi attending the Second Round Table Conference.
• Second Round Table Conference (1931): Gandhi represented the Congress but faced challenges to his claim of representing all of India. The Muslim League claimed to represent Muslims, the Princes claimed to represent their states, and B.R. Ambedkar demanded separate electorates for the Depressed Classes (which Gandhi opposed, fearing permanent social segregation).
• Government of India Act (1935): Promised a limited form of representative government. In the 1937 provincial elections, Congress won a comprehensive victory, forming ministries in 8 out of 11 provinces.

The outbreak of World War II in September 1939 created a political crisis. Congress ministries resigned in protest when the British committed India to the war without consultation.

• Cripps Mission (1942): Sir Stafford Cripps attempted to negotiate a compromise, but talks broke down when the British refused to appoint an Indian as the Defence Member of the Viceroy's Executive Council.
• Quit India Movement (August 1942): Gandhi launched his third major mass movement. Although Gandhi and top leaders were immediately jailed, younger activists organized nationwide strikes and sabotage.
• Parallel Governments: "Independent" local governments were established in districts like Satara (the Satara prati sarkar ) in the west and Medinipur in the east.

While Congress leaders were imprisoned, the Muslim League expanded its influence in Punjab and Sind.

• Cabinet Mission (1946): Failed to secure agreement on a federal system that would keep India united while granting provincial autonomy.
• Direct Action Day (16 August 1946): Called by Jinnah to press the demand for Pakistan, triggering severe communal riots in Calcutta that spread across Bengal, Bihar, the United Provinces, and Punjab.
• Partition and Independence: Viceroy Lord Mountbatten announced the partition of British India. On August 15, 1947, India gained independence.

Gandhi did not participate in the independence celebrations in Delhi. Instead, he remained in Calcutta, marking the day with a 24-hour fast to protest communal violence.

• Peace Missions: Traveled through riot-torn areas of Bengal and Delhi, visiting refugee camps and hospitals to restore harmony. He championed a resolution on the "rights of minorities" to ensure India remained a democratic, secular state.
• Assassination (30 January 1948): Gandhi was shot dead during his daily prayer meeting in Delhi by Nathuram Godse , a Hindu extremist. His death triggered global grief, with tributes from figures like Albert Einstein and George Orwell.