Knowledge Traditions and Practices of India: Class 11 (Part 1) — Chapter 02: Indian Philosophical Systems

1. Pratyakṣa: Direct perception through the sense organs.
2. Anumāna: Inference or syllogistic argument.
3. Upamāna: Analogy or comparison.
4. Śabda: Verbal testimony of reliable authorities.
5. Anupalabdhi: Non-perception, used to perceive non-existence.
6. Arthāpatti: Implication or postulation.

Indian philosophical systems are historically divided into two major categories based on their acceptance of Vedic authority:

• Āstika (Orthodox): Schools that accept the validity of the Vedas as a source of knowledge. These include Sāṅkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Mīmāṁsā, and Vedānta.
• Nāstika (Heterodox): Schools that reject the authority of the Vedas. These include Cārvāka, Jaina, and Bauddha (Buddhism).

• Nigama Tradition: Centered on the Vedas, believing them to be eternal or divine revelations. It forms the basis of the six orthodox systems.
• Āgama Tradition: Parallel to the Vedic tradition, possessing independent scriptures considered divine revelations. Represented by Vaiṣṇava Āgama, Śaiva Āgama, and Śākta Tantra.
• Śramaṇa Tradition: Ascetic and monastic movements (such as Buddhism and Jainism) that emerged in opposition to Vedic ritualism, emphasizing moral life and logic.

Also known as Lokāyata or Bārhaspatya darśana, this is an extreme materialistic school attributed to Bṛhaspati.

• Epistemology: Accepts only Pratyakṣa (direct perception) as a valid source of knowledge. Rejects inference and verbal testimony.
• Metaphysics: Rejects the existence of God, soul, heaven, hell, and rebirth. Rejects the fifth element ākāśa (ether) because it cannot be perceived.
• Cosmology: The universe is composed of only four elements: air (vāyu), fire (agni), water (ap), and earth (pṛthvī). Consciousness is a byproduct of matter.
• Ethics: Rejects dharma and mokṣa; advocates for sensory enjoyment as the ultimate end of life.

Yāvatjīvet sukhaṁ jīvet ṛṇaṁ kṛtvā ghṛtaṁ pibet |
bhasmībhūtasya dehasya punarāgamanaṁ kutaḥ ||

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Translation / Analysis: As long as one lives, one should live happily. Even if you have to borrow, you should consume ghee (for good health); after all, how can a body come back after being burnt into ashes?

Based on the teachings of 24 Tīrthaṅkaras (preachers), with Ṛṣabhadeva as the first and Mahāvīra as the last.

• Core Doctrines:
  • Anekāntavāda: The doctrine of relative pluralism, stating that reality has multiple facets.
  • Syādvāda: The doctrine of conditional predication, asserting that all knowledge is relative and partial.
• Stages of the Soul (Jīva):
  1. Āsrava: Influx of karmic matter into the soul due to passions.
  2. Bandha: Bondage of the soul by karmic matter, obstructing its natural infinites.
  3. Saṁvara: Stoppage of the influx of karmic matter through virtuous conduct.
  4. Nirjarā: Gradual removal of existing karmic matter.
  5. Mokṣa: Complete liberation and revelation of the soul's four infinites (infinite knowledge, faith, power, and bliss).
• The Three Gems (Triratna): The path to liberation consisting of Right Faith (samyakdarśana), Right Knowledge (samyakjñāna), and Right Conduct (samyakcaritra).
• Five Great Vows (Pañcamahāvrata): Ahiṁsā (non-violence), Satya (truthfulness), Asteya (non-stealing), Aparigraha (non-possession), and Brahmacarya (celibacy).

Founded on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, compiled in the Tipiṭaka (Suttapiṭaka, Vinayapiṭaka, and Abhidhammapiṭaka).

• Four Noble Truths (Cattāri Ariyasaccāni):
  1. Dukkham: Life is full of suffering.
  2. Dukkhasamuppāda: There is a cause of suffering, explained by the 12-linked cycle of causation (dvādaśa nidānacakra), rooted in ignorance (avidyā).
  3. Dukkhassa atikkama: Cessation of suffering is possible by eliminating ignorance.
  4. Ariyam Aṭṭhaṅgikaṁ Maggaṁ: The Eightfold Path leading to the cessation of suffering.
• The Eightfold Path: Right views (sammā diṭṭhi), Right aspiration (sammā saṁkappo), Right speech (sammā vāk), Right action (sammā kammo), Right livelihood (sammā ājīvo), Right effort (sammā vāyāmo), Right mindfulness (sammā sati), and Right concentration (sammā samādhi).
• Key Doctrines:
  • Kṣaṇabhaṅgavāda: The doctrine of momentariness and impermanence of all things.
  • Anātmavāda: The denial of a permanent, unchanging self or soul.
• Major Sects:
  • Hīnayāna: Spread in South/Southeast Asia; includes Vaibhāṣika and Sautrāntika schools.
  • Mahāyāna: Spread in North/Northeast Asia; includes Yogācāra and Mādhyamika schools.

• Metaphysics: Dualistic system recognizing two ultimate, eternal realities: Puruṣa (pure consciousness, infinite in number) and Prakṛti (insentient primordial matter).
• The Three Guṇas: Prakṛti consists of three qualities in perfect equilibrium: Sattva (pleasure/light), Rajas (pain/activity), and Tamas (apathy/inactivity). Evolution begins when this balance is disturbed by the presence of Puruṣa.
• Epistemology: Accepts three pramāṇas: direct perception, inference, and verbal testimony.

• Definition: Defined by Patañjali as Chitta-vṛtti-nirodha (the restraint of mental modifications).
• Aṣṭāṅga Yoga (Eight Limbs):
  1. Yama: Moral restraints (internal purification).
  2. Niyama: Observances (external purity).
  3. Āsana: Physical postures.
  4. Prāṇāyāma: Breath control.
  5. Pratyāhāra: Withdrawal of senses from objects.
  6. Dhāraṇā: Concentration.
  7. Dhyāna: Meditation.
  8. Samādhi: Spiritual absorption.
• Metaphysics: Accepts Sāṁkhya metaphysics but adds Īśvara (God) as a special Puruṣa who is omniscient and untouched by afflictions.

• Focus: Logic, epistemology, and the art of debate. Established by Akṣapāda Gautama.
• Epistemology: Accepts four pramāṇas: pratyakṣa, anumāna, upamāna, and śabda.
• Navya-Nyāya: Founded by Gaṅgeśa Upādhyāya (14th century CE) in Mithila, introducing a highly sophisticated, unambiguous language of logic in his work Tattvacintāmaṇi.

• Focus: Metaphysics and cosmology. Founded by Kaṇāda.
• Seven Padārthas (Categories): Substance (dravya), quality (guṇa), action (karma), generality (sāmānya), particularity (viśeṣa), inherence (samavāya), and non-existence (abhāva).
• Atomic Theory: Proposes that the physical universe is composed of eternal, indivisible atoms (paramāṇu) of earth, water, fire, and air, combined under the will of God.

• Focus: Ritualistic interpretation of the Vedas (karmakāṇḍa). Founded by Jaimini.
• Core Beliefs: The Vedas are eternal, self-originated, and infallible. Actions (karma) possess an innate potency to produce fruits without requiring a divine dispenser.
• Contribution: Developed advanced linguistic hermeneutics and rules of sentence interpretation, which influence modern legal and judicial systems.

Based on the philosophical portion of the Vedas (jñānakāṇḍa or Upaniṣads). It comprises three major schools:

• Advaita (Non-dualism): Propounded by Ādi Śaṅkara. Asserts that Brahman is the sole reality, the individual soul (jīva) is identical to Brahman, and the empirical world is an illusion (māyā).
• Viśiṣṭādvaita (Qualified Non-dualism): Propounded by Rāmānuja. Asserts that the individual soul and matter are real attributes of Brahman, existing in a qualified unity.
• Dvaita (Dualism): Propounded by Mādhva. Asserts a strict dualism between God (Brahman), individual souls, and matter, emphasizing devotion (bhakti) as the path to liberation.