Knowledge Traditions And Practices Of India: Class 11 — Chapter 3: Performing Art Traditions in India

Indian music is a composite art form traditionally defined by three elements:

“गीतं, वाद्यं त्रयं संगीतमुच्यते” (Saṅgīta Ratnākara)

---

Translation / Analysis: Vocal music (Gīta), instrumental music (Vādya), and dance (Nṛtya) together constitute Saṅgīta.

1. Ancient Period (2500 B.C. – A.D. 1200): Origin traced to Indus Valley Civilisation and Vedic chanting. Rhythmic recitations of Ṛgveda are known as Ṛcās. Sāmaveda is the musical compilation of these Ṛcās set to Svaras (Sāmagāna).
   • Three basic Vedic Svaras: Udātta (sharp pitch), Anudātta (grave pitch), and Svarita (combined pitch).
   • Pāṇinīya Śikṣā: Pāṇini added Uccaistara (higher than Udātta) and Sannatara (lower than Anudātta).
   • Evolution of Seven Notes: Niṣāda (Ni) and Gāndhāra (Ga) from Udātta; Ṛṣabha (Re) and Dhaivata (Dha) from Anudātta; Ṣaḍja (Sa), Madhyama (Ma), and Pañcama (Pa) from Svarita.
   • Two Streams: Mārgī (or Gāndharva Saṅgīta, practiced for salvation) and Deśī Saṅgīta (regional, folk, and classical forms).
   • Epic References: Rāmāyaṇa mentions terms like Laya, Tāla, Mātrā, Mūrchanā, Jāti, and instruments like Vipañci and Vallakī. Mahābhārata mentions Grāma, Mūrchanā, and instruments like Bherī, Jharjharī, Tūrya, and Vīṇā.
   • Nāṭyaśāstra by Bharata: Pioneer work with 36 chapters (Chapters 28–33 dedicated to music). Discusses Śruti, Grāma, Grāmarāgas, Jāti, Mūrchanā, Gīti, Alaṅkāra, and Dhruva Gīta.
   • Classification of Instruments: Tat (string), Suśirā (wind), Avanādha (percussion), and Ghana (brass/wood).
   • Other Treatises: Bṛhaddeśī by Matanga (first description of Deśī Rāga, frets on Kinnarī Vīṇā); Saṅgīta Makaranda by Nārada (Time Theory of Rāgas).
   • Guru-Śiṣya Paramparā: Oral tradition of knowledge transmission in Gurukulas, preceding the modern Gharānā system.
2. Medieval Period (A.D. 1201 – A.D. 1800): Marked by the split into Hindustani Music (North, East, West) and Carnatic Music (South).
   • Saṅgīta Ratnākara by Śāraṅgadeva: Comprehensive text detailing 14 kinds of drums and rhythm instruments.
   • Persian Influence: Brought by the advent of Islam. Key figures include Amir Khusro (credited with Sitār, Tablā, Qawwālī, Qual, Kalbana, and Rāgas like Yaman), Raja Man Singh Tomar, Mian Tansen, Swami Haridas, Baiju Bavra, and Gopal Nayak.
   • Bhakti Movement: Music used to propagate philosophy by composers like Jayadeva, Vidyapati, Chandidas, Bhakta Narasimha, Meerabai, Kabir, Tulsidas, Surdas, and Chaitanya.
   • Musical Forms: Evolution of Jāti Gāyana into Prabandha, and later into Dhrupada, Dhamāra, Khayāl, and Tarānā. Instrumental styles like Masītkhānī and Rāzkhānī.
   • Rāga Vivodha by Pt. Somnath: Describes Devamāyā svarūpa (ethos) and Nādamaya svarūpa (tonal structure) of Rāgas, leading to Rāga-mālā paintings.
3. Modern Period (A.D. 1800 – Till date): Transition of music from royal courts to formal education systems.
   • Treatises: Naghmat-e-Asafi by Muhammad Raza (1813), which adopted the Bilawal Scale as the Shuddha Scale.
   • Pioneers: Pt. V.N. Bhatkhande (introduced Thaat Raga Paddhati) and Pt. V.D. Paluskar (founded Gandharva Mahavidyalaya). Both developed systematized notation systems.

Drama is derived from the Greek word meaning 'to do' or 'to act'. Aristotle defined it as 'imitated human life'. In India, the origin of theatre is described in the Nāṭyaśāstra:

• Nāṭyaveda (or Pañcamaveda): Created by Brahmā by extracting wisdom from Rigveda, performative rituals from Sāmaveda, musicality from Yajurveda, and emotive representations from Atharvaveda.
• Three Forms: Nāṭya (verbal act with singing), Nṛtya (non-verbal mimetic language), and Nṛtta (pure body dance).
• Abhinaya: Derived from 'Abhi' (learning from play) and 'ni' (to carry forward).
• Categories: Nataka (lokadharmi / popular) and nāṭyadharmi (conventional).

• Southern Traditions: Tamil literature mentions Kuttu (play/entertainment) and therukuttu (rural street theatre). Dance-dramas include Bhāgavata Mela Nāṭakam, Yakṣagaṇa, and Kuchipudi. Kathakali (Kerala) is the most vigorous dance-drama.
• Bombay Parsi Theatre: Initiated by Pestonji Framji (Original Theatrical Company, 1870) and Khurshidji Balliwala (Victoria Theatrical Company).
• IPTA (Indian People’s Theatre Association): Evolved post-1930s; focused on social realities, nationalism, and experimental theatre.
• Key Modern Figures: Girish Chandra Ghosh, Bharatendu Harishchandra, Sombhu Mitra, Habib Tanvir, Badal Sarkar, Mohan Rakesh, Vijay Tendulkar, Girish Karnad, Ibrahim Alkazi.

Dance is depicted in prehistoric cave paintings (Bhimbetka) and ancient relics (Indus Valley bronze dancing girl). Its origin is ascribed to Naṭarāja (Śiva).

• Ancient Treatises: Nāṭyaśāstra, Abhinaya Darpaṇa, Nartana Sarvaswam.
• Four Types of Abhinaya (Expression):
  • Āṅgikābhinaya: Movements of the body or limbs.
  • Vācikābhinaya: Words, songs, speeches, and narration.
  • Āhāryābhinaya: Costumes, jewellery, make-up, and stage props.
  • Sātvikābhinaya: Inner spiritual feelings and psychic states.

• Kalbelia (Rajasthan): Performed by the snake charmer community to the beats of khanjari and poongi.
• Cheraw (Mizoram): Bamboo dance where dancers step in and out of moving bamboo staves.
• Lama Dances (Sikkim): Masked dances performed by Buddhist monks, codified by Guru Padmasambhava.
• Rouf (Kashmir): Performed by women during festive occasions like Eid and Ramzan in a question-and-answer singing format.

• Bhavai (Gujarat/Rajasthan): Traditional theatre originating as a prayer to Goddess Amba during Navaratra.
• Tamasha (Maharashtra): Highly energetic folk theatre; the term is derived from Persian.
• Bhand Pather (Kashmir): Unique combination of dance, music, and satirical drama used to induce laughter.
• Nautanki (North India): Operatic drama featuring a narrator called Ranga, accompanied by Nagaara and Tikaari.
• Swang (Haryana/Punjab): Folk-theatre form similar to Nautanki, often performed by Bahurupias.
• Rāsli-lā (Uttar Pradesh): Musical theatre based exclusively on the legendary stories of Radha and Krishna.
• Jātrā (Bengal/Orissa): Travelling musical theatre that has transitioned from religious themes to social and historical narratives.
• Kutiyattam (Kerala): The oldest surviving Sanskrit theatre tradition, incorporating local Malayalam elements.