Political Science: Class 11 (Book 2) — Chapter 7: Federalism

Federalism is an institutional mechanism designed to accommodate two sets of polities: one at the regional level and the other at the national level. It operates on the principle of shared rule and self-rule, ensuring unity without eliminating regional identities.

• Dual Polity : Existence of two autonomous spheres of government (national/union and regional/state), each sovereign within its constitutionally demarcated domain.
• Dual Identity : Citizens hold overlapping loyalties to both their specific region (e.g., Gujarati, Tamilian) and the nation as a whole (Indian).
• Written Constitution : A supreme, written document that acts as the source of power for both tiers of government, preventing unilateral alterations of the federal balance.
• Independent Judiciary : An impartial judicial system with the power to resolve legal disputes and jurisdictional conflicts between the centre and the states.

The Dissolution of the USSR, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia

The collapse of the Soviet Union (USSR) post-1989, alongside the divisions of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, highlights that merely adopting a federal constitution is insufficient to guarantee national integrity. Excessive centralization, the concentration of power in a dominant region (such as Russia in the USSR), and the suppression of distinct regional languages and cultures led to systemic alienation and eventual disintegration.

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Political Analysis & Systemic Significance: Highly centralized federations that fail to cultivate a culture of trust, mutual respect, and democratic accommodation are highly susceptible to secessionist movements and civil conflict. True federalism requires both constitutional design and democratic practice.

Federalism in the West Indies

Formed in 1958 under British colonial influence, the Federation of the West Indies collapsed in 1962 due to a weak central government, independent provincial economies, and intense political competition. In 1973, the Treaty of Chiguaramas established joint authorities (common legislature, supreme court, currency, and market) under the Caribbean Community, illustrating a unique model where units can neither live fully integrated nor completely apart.

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Political Analysis & Systemic Significance: A federation cannot survive without a minimum threshold of shared economic interest and central coordinating authority. Decentralization without political cohesion leads to structural dissolution.

Federalism in Nigeria

Originally divided into Northern and Southern British colonies, Nigeria adopted a federal constitution in 1950. The three major ethnic groups—Yoruba (West), Ibo (East), and Hausa-Fulani (North)—struggled for regional dominance, leading to military coups, centralized military regimes, and severe conflict. Despite the restoration of democracy in 1999, disputes over the control of oil revenues and religious differences continue to threaten the federation.

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Political Analysis & Systemic Significance: When ethnic, religious, and economic cleavages overlap directly with regional boundaries, federal systems face extreme strain. Resource distribution (like oil revenues) requires transparent, non-partisan institutional mechanisms to prevent regional alienation.

Before Independence, the national movement recognized the necessity of dividing powers to govern a vast country. While the Muslim League agitated for maximum regional autonomy to protect minority interests, the trauma of Partition led the Constituent Assembly to prioritize national unity and cooperation over extreme decentralization.

• Article 1(1) : "India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States ."
• The word "federation" is deliberately omitted from the \text of the Constitution, emphasizing that the Indian Union is not the result of an agreement by the states, and no state has the right to secede from it.

The Constitution of India clearly demarcates the legislative and executive jurisdictions of the Union and State governments under the Seventh Schedule, categorizing subjects into three distinct lists, alongside residuary powers.

1. Continental Dimensions and Diversity : The vast size and deep socio-cultural divisions required a strong central authority to maintain law and order and foster national integration.
2. Integration of Princely States : At independence, over 500 princely states had to be integrated into the Indian Union, requiring decisive central intervention.
3. Socio-Economic Planning : Eradicating poverty, illiteracy, and deep-seated inequalities required coordinated national planning, leading to the creation of the centralized Planning Commission.

• Territorial Integrity : Under Article 3, Parliament can unilaterally alter state boundaries, create new states, or change a state's name without its consent. The existence of a state is not constitutionally guaranteed.
• Emergency Provisions : Part XVIII of the Constitution allows the central government to convert the federal polity into a highly centralized unitary system during national, state, or financial emergencies.
• Financial Dominance : Revenue-generating sources are heavily concentrated with the Centre. States are structurally dependent on central grants-in-aid and discretionary financial allocations.
• The Office of the Governor : The Governor, appointed by the President, acts as an agent of the Centre and has the power to reserve state bills for the President's assent, delaying or vetoing state legislation.
• Article 257(1) : The executive power of every State must be exercised so as not to impede the executive power of the Union, allowing the Centre to issue binding directions to states.
• All-India Services : An integrated administrative system where officers of the IAS and IPS are recruited and controlled by the central government but serve in key state administrative posts.
• Articles 33 and 34 : Authorize Parliament to protect military and civil personnel during martial law, providing the constitutional basis for centralized security acts like the Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA).

1. Phase I: Congress Dominance (1950s – mid-1960s) : Characterized by single-party dominance at both the Centre and in most states. Relations were relatively smooth, resolved through intra-party negotiations under Jawaharlal Nehru's leadership.
2. Phase II: Rise of Opposition & Conflict (mid-1960s – 1980s) : Congress dominance declined; opposition parties formed governments in several states. This led to intense political friction, protests against central interference, and demands for greater state autonomy.
3. Phase III: Coalition Era (1990s – Present) : The emergence of regional parties as key players in national coalition governments at the Centre. This led to a more mature, cooperative federalism, respecting diversity and giving states a greater say in national policy.

• Political/Constitutional Autonomy : Demands to alter the division of powers in favor of the states, transferring more subjects from the Union and Concurrent lists to the State list.
• Financial Autonomy : Demands for independent sources of revenue and greater control over resources to reduce dependence on central grants (e.g., the 1977 West Bengal Left Front memorandum).
• Administrative Autonomy : Resentment against the central government's control over the administrative machinery, particularly the All-India Services (IAS/IPS).
• Cultural and Linguistic Autonomy : Resistance to the perceived imposition of Hindi (e.g., anti-Hindi agitations in Tamil Nadu during the 1960s) and demands for the promotion of regional languages and cultures.

Article 356 allows the central government to dismiss an elected state government and impose President's Rule if the constitutional machinery in the state breaks down. This has been one of the most abused provisions of the Constitution.

• Pre-1967 : Used sparingly.
• Post-1967 : Used extensively by the Centre to dismiss state governments ruled by opposition parties (e.g., Kerala in 1959, and multiple states in the 1970s and 1980s).
• Sarkaria Commission (1983/1988) : Recommended that Article 356 should be used only as a measure of last resort and that the office of the Governor must be strictly non-partisan.
• Judicial Intervention : The Supreme Court ruled that the constitutional validity of imposing President's Rule is subject to judicial review, significantly curbing its arbitrary use.

The Indian national movement promised the creation of states based on linguistic and cultural identity. This led to a continuous process of territorial reorganisation post-independence.

• States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) 1953 : Recommended the creation of linguistic states, leading to major reorganisation in 1956.
• Key Milestones :
  • 1960: Bombay bifurcated into Gujarat and Maharashtra.
  • 1966: Punjab bifurcated into Punjab and Haryana.
  • North-East Reorganisation: Creation of Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Arunachal Pradesh.
  • 2000: Creation of Chhattisgarh (from MP), Uttarakhand (from UP), and Jharkhand (from Bihar) for administrative efficiency and regional aspirations.
  • 2014: Telangana carved out of Andhra Pradesh.

Interstate disputes are highly emotional and politically charged, requiring judicial arbitration and political negotiation.

• Rajya Sabha Representation : Unlike the US Senate, where all states have equal representation, seats in India's Rajya Sabha are allocated based on population, ensuring larger states have greater representation while guaranteeing minimum representation to smaller states.
• North-Eastern States : Special provisions (Articles 371 to 371-I) exist for states like Assam, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, and Mizoram to protect the land rights, culture, and customary laws of indigenous tribal populations.
• Hilly and Other States : Special provisions also apply to hilly states like Himachal Pradesh and others like Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Sikkim, and Telangana to address developmental imbalances.

"According to Article 370, the concurrence of the State was required for making any laws in matters mentioned in the Union and Concurrent lists... J&K had a separate constitution and a flag..."

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Political Analysis & Systemic Significance: Article 370 was a prime example of asymmetrical federalism, granting J&K greater autonomy due to the unique circumstances of its accession in 1947. However, this special status was revoked by the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019, which bifurcated the state into two Union Territories: (i) Jammu and Kashmir, and (ii) Ladakh, bringing it fully in line with the standard constitutional framework of the Indian Union.