Political Science: Class 12 (Book 1) — Chapter 3: Contemporary South Asia

• Geographical Boundaries : Defined by the mighty Himalayas in the north, the Indian Ocean in the south, the Arabian Sea in the west, and the Bay of Bengal in the east, providing a natural insularity.
• Core Countries : Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.
• Peripheral Dynamics : Afghanistan and Myanmar are frequently included in regional discussions. China is a major external player but is not considered a geographical part of the region.
• Geopolitical Character : A space of immense linguistic, social, and cultural diversity that nevertheless constitutes a single distinct geopolitical space.

The following matrix outlines key human development and Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) indicators across South Asian nations as of 2017-2018:

Source: United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report, 2018

• Early Military Dominance : Following the framing of Pakistan's first constitution, General Ayub Khan took control, followed by General Yahya Khan's military administration, during which the 1971 Bangladesh crisis occurred.
• Democratic Interludes : An elected government under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto ruled from 1971 to 1977. It was overthrown by General Zia-ul-Haq in 1977. Democracy was restored in 1988 under Benazir Bhutto (Pakistan People's Party) and Nawaz Sharif (Muslim League).
• The Musharraf Era : General Pervez Musharraf led a military coup in 1999, removing Nawaz Sharif, and got himself elected as President in 2001.
• Post-2008 Transition : Democratic elections were restored in 2008, and civilian governments have run the country since.
• Factors Limiting Democratic Consolidation :
  1. Social dominance of the military, clergy, and landowning aristocracy.
  2. Geopolitical conflict with India, which empowers pro-military groups.
  3. Lack of genuine international support; Western powers have historically backed military regimes to counter "global Islamic terrorism" and secure Pakistan's nuclear arsenal.

A cartoon by Surendra in The Hindu depicts General Pervez Musharraf holding a slate showing equations: a civilian figure minus a military cap equals 0; a military figure equals 1; and a civilian figure plus a military cap equals 2. The caption reads "I am always good at calculation."

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Political Analysis & Systemic Significance: This cartoon highlights the dual role of Pervez Musharraf as both the civilian President and the Chief of Army Staff. It illustrates how military rulers in Pakistan manipulate constitutional roles to concentrate absolute power, suggesting that civilian authority alone is treated as worthless (0), while combining civilian and military offices yields double the political leverage (2).

• Post-Partition Domination (1947-1971) : Bangladesh existed as East Pakistan. The population resented the political dominance of West Pakistan and the forced imposition of the Urdu language.
• The Awami League Mobilization : Led by Sheikh Mujib-ur Rahman, the Awami League demanded regional autonomy. In the 1970 elections, the party won all seats in East Pakistan, securing an absolute majority in the proposed constituent assembly. West Pakistani leadership refused to convene the assembly and arrested Mujib.
• 1971 Liberation War : Following military suppression by General Yahya Khan's forces, millions of refugees fled to India. The Government of India supported the liberation movement financially and militarily, culminating in the December 1971 war and the creation of independent Bangladesh.
• Authoritarian Shift and Assassination : In 1975, Sheikh Mujib amended the constitution to establish a presidential system and banned all opposition parties except the Awami League. He was assassinated in a military coup in August 1975.
• Military Rule and Democratic Restoration : Successive military regimes under Ziaur Rahman and later Lt. Gen. H.M. Ershad faced massive pro-democracy student protests. Ershad stepped down in 1990, and representative multi-party democracy was restored with the 1991 elections.

• Historical Status : Nepal was a Hindu kingdom and a constitutional monarchy for most of the modern era. The king, backed by the army, retained absolute control and resisted democratic expansion.
• The Maoist Insurgency : During the 1990s, the Maoists of Nepal established strongholds, believing in armed insurrection against the monarchy. This led to a triangular conflict between monarchist forces, democratic political parties, and Maoist guerrillas.
• 2002 Royal Takeover : King Gyanendra dismissed the government and abolished parliament, ending the limited democracy established in 1990.
• 2006 Pro-Democracy Movement : Led by the Seven Party Alliance (SPA) , Maoists, and social activists, massive non-violent protests forced the King to restore the House of Representatives.
• Transition to Republic : In 2008, the monarchy was formally abolished, and Nepal became a democratic republic. In 2015, Nepal adopted a new democratic constitution.

• Democratic Continuity : Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon) has successfully maintained a democratic system since gaining independence in 1948.
• The Sinhala-Tamil Divide : Politics was dominated by the majority Sinhala community, which was hostile to Tamil migrants from India. Sinhala nationalists rejected concessions to Tamils, asserting that Sri Lanka belonged solely to the Sinhalese.
• Rise of Militant Tamil Nationalism : Neglect of Tamil interests led to the creation of the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) in 1983, which launched an armed struggle for a separate state called 'Tamil Eelam'.
• Indian Intervention (1987-1989) : Under domestic pressure, India signed an accord with Sri Lanka in 1987 and deployed the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) . The IPKF ended up in direct combat with the LTTE. Sri Lankans viewed this as external interference, and the IPKF pulled out in 1989 without achieving its goals.
• Resolution and Economic Success : The armed conflict ended in 2009 with the military defeat of the LTTE. Despite decades of civil war, Sri Lanka maintained high economic growth, successfully controlled population growth, liberalized its economy early, and registered high Human Development Index (HDI) scores.

• The Kashmir Dispute : Immediately after partition, the 1947-48 war divided the region into Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK) and the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, separated by the Line of Control (LoC). Subsequent wars in 1965 and 1971 failed to resolve the issue.
• Strategic and Resource Disputes : Conflict persists over the control of the Siachen glacier and the demarcation of the boundary line in Sir Creek (Rann of Kutch), which impacts maritime resource control.
• Nuclear Arms Race : The conflict escalated in the late 1990s with nuclear tests by India (Pokhran, 1998) and Pakistan (Chagai Hills, 1998), establishing a regime of mutual nuclear deterrence.
• Proxy War Allegations : India accuses Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) of aiding Kashmiri militants, supporting pro-Khalistani extremists (1985-1995), and operating anti-India campaigns in the Northeast via Bangladesh and Nepal. Pakistan accuses Indian security agencies of fomenting trouble in Sindh and Balochistan.
• Water Sharing : Despite military conflicts, the Indus Waters Treaty signed in 1960 has successfully regulated the sharing of the Indus basin rivers.

• SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation) : Established in 1985 to foster multilateral cooperation. Its success has been severely limited due to persistent political differences, particularly between India and Pakistan.
• SAFTA (South Asian Free Trade Area) : Signed in 2004 and came into effect on 1 January 2006. It aims to lower trade tariffs across the region.
• Fears and Perspectives on SAFTA :
  • Smaller neighbors fear that SAFTA is a mechanism for India to economically dominate their markets and influence their societies.
  • India believes SAFTA offers real economic benefits for all partners, arguing that free trade will foster better political cooperation.
  • Some Indian analysts view SAFTA as redundant because India already has bilateral trade agreements with Bhutan, Nepal, and Sri Lanka.

• The United States : US involvement in South Asia has increased significantly since the end of the Cold War. The US maintains strong bilateral ties with both India and Pakistan, frequently acting as a moderator in their relations. The large South Asian diaspora in the US and the region's massive market size give the US a strategic stake in regional stability.
• China : China remains a key strategic partner of Pakistan, which is a major source of concern for India. However, economic development and globalization have brought India and China closer, with their bilateral trade multiplying rapidly since 1991.