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Political Science: Class 12 (Book 2) — Chapter 8: Recent Developments in Indian Politics

Context of the 1990s: Five Landmark Developments

The end of the 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s marked a watershed period in Indian politics, characterized by five major developments that fundamentally altered the political landscape.

1. Decline of the Congress System
  • Electoral Defeat of 1989 : The Congress party, which had won a historic landslide of 415 seats in the 1984 Lok Sabha elections, was reduced to just 197 seats in 1989.
  • End of Single-Party Dominance : Although Congress temporarily returned to power in 1991 as a minority government, the 1989 elections marked the definitive end of the Congress system of one-party dominance.
2. Rise of the Mandal Issue
  • OBC Reservations : In 1990, the National Front government decided to implement the recommendations of the Mandal Commission , reserving 27% of central government jobs for Other Backward Classes (OBCs).
  • Social Upheaval : This decision sparked violent anti-Mandal protests across north India, leading to deep political polarization and the consolidation of OBCs as a powerful political identity.
3. New Economic Reforms
  • Structural Adjustment Programme : Initiated in 1991 under Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao and Finance Minister Manmohan Singh, these reforms marked a radical departure from the state-led economic model followed since Independence.
  • Economic Liberalisation : Despite widespread criticism from various social movements, successive governments of different political coalitions continued to pursue these market-oriented policies.
4. The Ayodhya Dispute and Rise of Hindutva
  • Ram Janmabhoomi Movement : The dispute over the structure at Ayodhya became a central political issue, transforming the national discourse on secularism, democracy, and cultural nationalism.
  • Political Mobilisation : The movement culminated in the demolition of the disputed structure in December 1992 and a long legal battle, which was resolved by a historic Supreme Court verdict in 2019.
5. Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi
  • Tragic Demise : In May 1991, former Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi was assassinated by a Sri Lankan Tamil suicide bomber linked to the LTTE during an election campaign in Tamil Nadu.
  • Leadership Transition : The tragedy led to the appointment of P.V. Narasimha Rao as Prime Minister, steering the Congress-led government through crucial economic and political transitions.
The Era of Coalition Politics

The decline of Congress dominance initiated a multi-party era where no single political party could secure a clear majority in the Lok Sabha, making coalition governments the norm at the Centre from 1989 until 2014.

Chronology of Central Governments (1989–2019)

The following table details the shifting alliances and coalition governments that ruled India during this highly competitive era:

Prime Minister Period of Tenure Coalition / Party in Power Nature of Support / Key Partners
V.P. Singh December 1989 – November 1990 National Front (NF) Led by Janata Dal; supported from outside by BJP and Left Front.
Chandra Shekhar November 1990 – June 1991 Section of National Front Led by Samajwadi Janata Party; supported from outside by Congress.
P.V. Narasimha Rao June 1991 – May 1996 Congress Minority government supported by AIADMK and smaller regional parties.
A.B. Vajpayee May 1996 – June 1996 BJP Minority government; lasted only 13 days due to lack of majority.
H.D. Deve Gowda June 1996 – April 1997 United Front (UF) Janata Dal and regional parties; supported from outside by Congress.
I.K. Gujral April 1997 – March 1998 United Front (UF) Supported from outside by Congress.
A.B. Vajpayee March 1998 – May 2004 National Democratic Alliance (NDA) Led by BJP; completed a full term after re-election in 1999.
Manmohan Singh May 2004 – May 2014 United Progressive Alliance (UPA) Led by Congress; supported by Left parties (until 2008) and regional allies.
Narendra Modi May 2014 – Present National Democratic Alliance (NDA) Led by BJP, which won a single-party majority in 2014 and 2019.
Political Dynamics of Coalition Alliances
  • Role of Regional Parties : Regional parties became indispensable "kingmakers" in national politics, as national parties required their support to form stable governments.
  • Pragmatic Alignments : Ideological differences were often set aside in favor of power-sharing arrangements. For instance, the Left and the BJP both supported the National Front in 1989 to keep Congress out, while Congress supported the United Front in 1996 to keep the BJP out.
Political Rise of the Other Backward Classes (OBCs)

The mobilization of backward classes emerged as a dominant factor in Indian electoral politics, challenging traditional upper-caste hegemony and reshaping political representation.

The Mandal Commission and Its Implementation
  • Establishment : The Second Backward Classes Commission was appointed in 1978 by the Janata Party government, chaired by Bindeshwari Prasad Mandal, to identify socially and educationally backward classes.
  • Key Findings : The Commission identified that backward castes had extremely low representation in public employment and higher education, and recommended a 27% reservation for OBCs.
  • Implementation and Legal Challenge : Implemented in August 1990 by the National Front government, the decision was challenged in the Supreme Court. In the landmark Indira Sawhney case (November 1992), the Supreme Court upheld the constitutional validity of the reservation.

Profile: Bindeshwari Prasad Mandal (1918–1982)

  • Role & Affiliation: Member of Parliament from Bihar (1967–1970, 1977–1979); briefly served as Chief Minister of Bihar in 1968; joined the Janata Party in 1977.
  • Ideological Contributions: Championed the cause of backward classes and social justice; advocated for institutional representation of marginalized castes in state machinery.
  • Key Policies / Milestones: Chaired the Second Backward Classes Commission (popularly known as the Mandal Commission), whose recommendations transformed the socio-political landscape of modern India.
Dalit Mobilisation and the Rise of the BSP

Parallel to OBC mobilization, the 1980s witnessed the political consolidation of Dalit communities, leading to the emergence of independent Dalit-led political parties.

From BAMCEF to the Bahujan Samaj Party
  • BAMCEF (1978) : The Backward and Minority Communities Employees Federation was formed as a strong advocacy group for the political rights of the 'Bahujan' (SC, ST, OBC, and minorities).
  • Establishment of the BSP (1984) : Under the leadership of Kanshi Ram, the Bahujan Samaj Party was formed, transitioning Dalit activism from trade unionism to direct electoral competition.
  • Electoral Breakthrough : The BSP achieved major electoral success in Uttar Pradesh in the 1989 and 1991 elections, demonstrating that a party supported primarily by Dalit voters could capture state power.

Profile: Kanshi Ram (1934–2006)

  • Role & Affiliation: Founder of BAMCEF, DS-4, and the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) in 1984; astute political strategist.
  • Ideological Contributions: Viewed political power as the "master key" to achieving social equality and dignity for the Bahujan majority; engineered coalitions of diverse marginalized groups.
  • Key Policies / Milestones: Credited with the political resurgence of Dalits in northern Indian states, particularly Uttar Pradesh, shifting the focus of regional politics toward caste empowerment.
Communalism, Secularism, and the Ayodhya Dispute

The late 1980s saw a significant rise in politics centered around religious identity, leading to intense national debates on the nature of Indian secularism and democracy.

The Rise of the BJP and Hindutva
  • Formation of the BJP (1980) : Following the collapse of the Janata Party, former members of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh formed the Bharatiya Janata Party.
  • Ideological Shift : Initially adopting "Gandhian Socialism," the BJP shifted after 1986 to emphasize cultural nationalism or Hindutva , a concept popularized by V.D. Savarkar defining Indian nationhood based on shared cultural heritage.
Two Key Developments in 1986
  1. The Shah Bano Case (1985–1986) : The Supreme Court ruled in favor of maintenance for a divorced Muslim woman. Under pressure from orthodox Muslim leaders, the Congress government passed the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986, which nullified the court's judgment. The BJP strongly criticized this as minority appeasement.
  2. The Opening of Ayodhya Gates (1986) : A district court ordered the unlocking of the disputed three-dome structure in Ayodhya, allowing Hindus to offer prayers. This triggered massive mobilization by both Hindu and Muslim organizations, leading to communal tensions and the subsequent demolition of the structure on December 6, 1992.
The Supreme Court Verdict of 2019

The decades-long legal dispute was resolved on November 9, 2019, by a unanimous 5-0 verdict of a constitutional bench of the Supreme Court:

  • Land Allocation : The disputed site was allotted to the Shri Ram Janmabhoomi Teertha Kshetra Trust for the construction of a Ram temple.
  • Alternative Site : The Court directed the government to allot a suitable 5-acre plot of land to the Sunni Central Waqf Board for the construction of a mosque.
  • Constitutional Principle : The judgment emphasized that the Constitution guarantees equality of all faiths and creeds under the rule of law.
The Emergence of a New Political Consensus

Despite intense electoral competition and frequent changes of government, a broad consensus has emerged among almost all major political parties on four core elements.

Four Elements of the Growing Consensus
Consensus Element Core Description Political Significance
1. Agreement on New Economic Policies Acceptance of economic liberalization, privatization, and globalization. Ensures continuity of economic reforms regardless of which coalition is in power.
2. Acceptance of OBC Claims Recognition of the social and political claims of backward castes. All major parties now support reservations for OBCs in education and employment.
3. Role of State-Level Parties Acceptance of regional parties as key partners in national governance. Bridges the gap between regional aspirations and national policy-making.
4. Pragmatic Coalitions Shift from ideological purity to power-sharing arrangements. Enables stable governance through broad-based, non-ideological alliances.

"Ups and downs of various political parties in the 1990s appeared to many, like this cartoon drawn in 1990, as a roller coaster ride. Riding the roller coaster are Rajiv Gandhi, V. P. Singh, L. K. Advani, Chandrashekhar, Jyoti Basu, N. T. Rama Rao, Devi Lal, P. K. Mahanta and K. Karunanidhi."

Political Analysis & Systemic Significance: This cartoon captures the extreme volatility and instability of Indian politics in the early 1990s. The transition from a dominant single-party system to a highly competitive multi-party coalition system meant that leaders of diverse regional and national parties were constantly negotiating, forming, and dissolving alliances. The "roller coaster" metaphor highlights the unpredictable nature of political power during this era of transition.