The study of self and personality helps us understand who we are, our uniqueness, and our similarities with others. Self and personality refer to the characteristic ways in which we define our existence and organize our experiences to guide our behavior.
An individual's identity is composed of two primary aspects:
The self has a dual status, functioning as both subject and object:
The self is formed through interactions with physical and socio-cultural environments:
Self-concept: The way we perceive ourselves and the ideas we hold about our competencies and attributes. It can be positive or negative, both generally and in specific domains (e.g., academic vs. athletic).
Self-esteem: The value judgment of a person about herself/himself. By age 6 to 7, children form self-esteem in four key areas:
Self-efficacy: Based on Albert Bandura's social learning theory, it is the extent to which people believe they control their life outcomes rather than relying on luck or fate. A strong sense of self-efficacy reduces fear and allows people to select and influence their circumstances.
Self-regulation: The ability to organize and monitor our own behavior. This includes self-control (delaying gratification of needs for long-term goals). Psychological techniques of self-control include:
The boundary between the self and others varies significantly across cultures, as summarized below:
| Dimension | Western Perspective | Indian Perspective |
|---|---|---|
| Boundary | Relatively fixed and clearly defined. | Shifting and dynamic; expands to fuse with the cosmos or others. |
| Relationship with Group | Self and group exist as distinct entities; maintains individuality. | Self is not separated from the group; characterized by harmonious co-existence. |
| Cultural Orientation | Individualistic | Collectivistic |
The term personality is derived from the Latin word persona, meaning the mask used by actors in Roman theatre. In psychological terms, personality refers to unique and relatively stable qualities that characterize an individual's behavior across different situations over time.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Temperament | Biologically based characteristic way of reacting. |
| Trait | Stable, persistent, and specific way of behaving. |
| Disposition | Tendency of a person to react to a given situation in a particular way. |
| Character | The overall pattern of regularly occurring behavior. |
| Habit | Over-learned modes of behaving. |
| Values | Goals and ideals considered important and worthwhile to achieve. |
Type approaches categorize human personality into broad, distinct patterns based on shared behavioral characteristics:
Trait approaches focus on specific, enduring psychological attributes along which individuals differ in consistent ways:
The Five-Factor Model of Personality (Big Five Factors):
| Factor | High Score Characteristics | Low Score Characteristics |
|---|---|---|
| Openness to Experience | Imaginative, curious, open to new ideas, interested in cultural pursuits. | Rigid, conventional. |
| Extraversion | Socially active, assertive, outgoing, talkative, fun-loving. | Shy, quiet, reserved. |
| Agreeableness | Helpful, co-operative, friendly, caring, nurturing. | Hostile, self-centered. |
| Neuroticism | Emotionally unstable, anxious, worried, fearful, distressed, irritable. | Well-adjusted, calm, stable. |
| Conscientiousness | Achievement-oriented, dependable, responsible, prudent, hardworking, self-controlled. | Impulsive, disorganized. |
Developed by Sigmund Freud, this approach visualizes the mind in terms of levels of consciousness and structural elements of personality.
Levels of Consciousness:
Structure of Personality:
Ego Defence Mechanisms: Ways of reducing anxiety by distorting reality:
Stages of Psychosexual Development:
Failure to navigate a stage successfully leads to fixation (arrested development) or regression (returning to an earlier stage under stress).
Behavioural Approach: Focuses on observable, measurable data. Personality is understood as the response of an individual to the environment, shaped by learning principles (classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning, and observational learning).
Cultural Approach: Understands personality as an adaptation to the ecological and cultural environment. For example, nomadic hunting-gathering societies (like the Birhor) foster independence and autonomy, whereas agricultural societies socialize children to be obedient and cooperative.
Humanistic Approach: Developed in response to Freud's deterministic view. Key theorists include:
Personality assessment refers to formal procedures used to evaluate or differentiate people on the basis of psychological characteristics.
Structured measures requiring subjects to objectively report their own feelings using rating scales:
Indirect methods developed to assess unconscious motives and feelings using unstructured stimuli:
Observing and analyzing behavior in real or simulated situations: