Psychology: Class 12 — Chapter 7: Social Influence and Group Processes

A group is defined as an organised system of two or more individuals, who are interacting and interdependent, who have common motives, have a set of role relationships among its members, and have norms that regulate the behaviour of its members.

Groups are distinguished from other collections of people such as crowds, teams, and audiences:

• Crowd: A collection of people who are present at a place/situation by chance (e.g., spectators at an accident). There is no structure, feeling of belongingness, or interdependence. Behaviour in crowds can often be irrational.
• Audience: A collection of people assembled for a special purpose (e.g., watching a movie or a match). They are generally passive but can sometimes turn into a mob, which is characterised by a definite sense of purpose, polarisation of attention, homogeneity of thought, and impulsivity.
• Team: A special kind of group where members have complementary skills, are committed to a common goal, and are mutually accountable. There is a positive synergy attained through coordinated efforts.

People join groups to satisfy a variety of psychological and social needs:

• Security: Groups reduce feelings of insecurity, providing comfort, protection, and strength.
• Status: Membership in prestigious groups provides recognition and a sense of power.
• Self-esteem: Groups provide feelings of self-worth and establish a positive social identity.
• Satisfaction of Psychological and Social Needs: Groups satisfy needs for belongingness, attention, love, and power.
• Goal Achievement: Groups facilitate the attainment of goals that cannot be achieved individually.
• Provide Knowledge and Information: Group membership broadens views and supplements individual knowledge.

Group formation is facilitated by several key conditions:

• Proximity: Repeated interactions with individuals living nearby or sharing the same spaces facilitate liking and group formation.
• Similarity: People prefer consistency and are attracted to others with similar interests, attitudes, and backgrounds.
• Common Motives and Goals: People form groups to facilitate the attainment of shared objectives.

According to Tuckman, groups pass through five developmental stages:

1. Forming Stage: Members meet for the first time; high uncertainty about goals and structure.
2. Storming Stage: Intragroup conflict regarding leadership, roles, and how to achieve goals.
3. Norming Stage: Development of norms and rules, leading to a positive group identity and cohesiveness.
4. Performing Stage: The group structure is accepted, and energy is channeled toward task performance.
5. Adjourning Stage: For temporary groups, the group is disbanded after the task is completed.

Over time, regularities in interactions shape the group structure, which consists of four main elements:

• Roles: Socially defined expectations that individuals in a given situation are expected to fulfil.
• Norms: Expected standards of behaviour and beliefs established, agreed upon, and enforced by group members.
• Status: The relative social position given to group members, which can be ascribed (based on seniority/birth) or achieved (based on expertise/hard work).
• Cohesiveness: Togetherness, binding, or mutual attraction among group members, often referred to as the "we-feeling".

Extreme cohesiveness can lead to Groupthink, a phenomenon conceptualised by Irving Janis. It occurs when a highly cohesive group overrides realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action to maintain unanimity.

Ways to prevent Groupthink include encouraging critical thinking, inviting outside experts, and presenting alternative courses of action.

Groups can be classified into three major categories:

• Primary vs. Secondary Groups: Primary groups are pre-existing formations (e.g., family, religion) with face-to-face, warm emotional bonds. Secondary groups are joined by choice (e.g., political parties) with impersonal, indirect relationships.
• Formal vs. Informal Groups: Formal groups have explicitly stated functions, rules, and roles (e.g., an office organisation). Informal groups are based on close personal relationships rather than rigid rules (e.g., a peer group).
• Ingroup vs. Outgroup: Ingroup refers to one's own group ("we"), viewed favourably with desirable traits. Outgroup refers to other groups ("they"), often perceived negatively or differently.

While Social Facilitation refers to enhanced performance in the presence of others, Social Loafing is the reduction in individual effort when working on a collective task where individual outputs are pooled.

Social loafing occurs because of diffused responsibility, decreased motivation, lack of group comparison, or poor coordination. It can be reduced by making individual efforts identifiable, increasing task importance, and strengthening group cohesiveness.

Group Polarisation is the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclination of its individual members.

Group polarisation occurs due to three main reasons:

• Exposure to new, persuasive arguments favouring the initial viewpoint.
• The bandwagon effect, where finding others with similar views validates and strengthens one's own position.
• Ingroup identification, which encourages conformity and strengthens shared attitudes.