India is the seventh-largest country in the world and a key part of Asia. Together with its neighbours (Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar), it forms the region known as the Indian Subcontinent.
The country is naturally bounded by:
India is broadly divided into five major geographical zones:
The Himalayan range acts as a massive northern wall stretching about $2500\text{ km}$ in length. It contains peaks over $8000\text{ metres}$ high, collectively known as the Eight Thousanders. It is often called the Water Tower of Asia because its melting snow feeds major perennial rivers like the Ganga, Indus, and Brahmaputra.
Millions of years ago, the Indian landmass was part of a larger supercontinent called Gondwana. After breaking away, it drifted north and collided with the Eurasian Plate about 50 million years ago. The collision crumpled the land between them, creating folded mountains. This tectonic movement continues today, with the Himalayas growing taller by about $5\text{ mm}$ each year.
The western Himalayan region features a traditional earthquake-resistant house construction style known as kath-kuni or dhajji-dewari, which utilizes a combination of locally sourced stone and wood.
Ladakh is a high-altitude cold desert in India where winter temperatures can drop below $-30^\circ\text{C}$. It features rugged, rocky terrain, deep valleys, and high-altitude lakes like Pangong Tso (a saltwater lake). Due to its unique geological formations resembling lunar landscapes, it is also referred to as moonland.
Located south of the Himalayas, the Gangetic Plains are vast, flat, and highly fertile lowlands. They are nourished by the alluvial deposits of the Ganga, Indus, and Brahmaputra river systems, making the region ideal for intensive agriculture and supporting a large portion of India's population.
The Thar Desert is a vast arid region spanning Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana. It is characterized by wind-sculpted sand dunes that can reach heights of up to $150\text{ metres}$. Due to extreme water scarcity, local communities have developed ingenious rainwater harvesting systems called taanka or kunds.
The Aravalli Hills are among the oldest mountain ranges in the world, dating back approximately 2.5 billion years. They act as a crucial natural barrier preventing the eastward expansion of the Thar Desert. The range is rich in minerals like marble, granite, zinc, and copper; ancient mines at Zawar indicate that Indians were among the first to master zinc extraction over eight centuries ago.
The southern part of India forms a triangular Peninsular Plateau surrounded by water on three sides. It is bordered by two mountain ranges:
Between these ranges lies the Deccan Plateau. Major east-flowing rivers (Godavari, Krishna, Mahanadi, Kaveri) drain into the Bay of Bengal, while west-flowing rivers (Narmada, Tapti) empty into the Arabian Sea.
India has a coastline stretching over $7500\text{ km}$:
India possesses two major offshore island groups:
The Sundarbans is the world's largest delta, formed by the confluence of the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers. It is a UNESCO World Heritage site characterized by dense mangrove forests and is a famous habitat for the Royal Bengal Tiger.
The northeastern hills include the Garo, Khasi, and Jaintia hills, which form part of the Meghalaya Plateau. This region experiences some of the highest rainfall in the world. It is famous for: