Social Sciences: Class 7 — Chapter 4: New Beginnings: Cities and States

In the 1st millennium BCE, a vibrant new phase of urbanisation began in the Ganga plains and neighbouring regions, known as the Second Urbanisation.

We know of this phase through two main sources:

• Archaeological excavations: Confirming the physical existence of ancient urban centres.
• Ancient literature: Rich references in late Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain texts.

As people formed clans sharing common language and customs, each clan settled in a territory called a janapada (Sanskrit for "where the people [jana] have set foot [pada]"), led by a rājā (ruler).

As trade networks expanded, smaller janapadas merged into larger political units called mahājanapadas by the 8th or 7th centuries BCE. Ancient texts frequently list 16 mahājanapadas, extending from Gandhāra (northwest) to Anga (east) and Aśhmaka (central India).

Most mahājanapadas were concentrated in the fertile Ganga plains due to:

• Highly productive agriculture.
• Availability of iron ore in nearby mountains and hills.
• Formation of active trade networks.

Their capitals were large, well-fortified cities protected by moats (deep, water-filled ditches) and narrow, guarded gateways.

In monarchies, the rājā held ultimate authority, supported by ministers and assemblies. The position was hereditary. The king collected taxes, maintained law and order, built fortifications, and maintained a standing army. Examples include Magadha, Kosala, and Avanti.

Some states, like Vajji (Vṛijji) and Malla, functioned as gaṇas or sanghas. In these early republics:

• The assembly (sabhā or samiti) held supreme power.
• Decisions were made through discussion and voting.
• The rājā was selected/elected by the assembly rather than inheriting power.

While ironworking was perfected from the early 2nd millennium BCE, it became widespread by the late 2nd millennium BCE. Iron tools facilitated large-scale agriculture, and iron weapons (swords, spears, shields) transformed warfare between rival states.

Growing trade led to the first use of coins in India. The earliest were punch-marked coins, made by punching symbols into soft silver. Later, copper and gold coins were also minted. Each mahājanapada typically issued its own coinage, which circulated widely through trade.

A jāti was a community defined by a specific professional occupation (e.g., metallurgy, agriculture, trade). Skills were transmitted generationally. Jātis often subdivided into sub-jātis with unique customs regarding marriage, food, and rituals.

Derived from Vedic texts, society was classified into four varṇas:

• Brahmins: Preserving knowledge and performing rituals.
• Kshatriyas: Defending society and engaging in warfare.
• Vaishyas: Generating wealth through trade, business, and agriculture.
• Shudras: Artisans, craftspeople, workers, and servants.

Historical evidence shows that the varṇa–jāti system was initially flexible; individuals and communities could change occupations due to calamities or choice. Over time, particularly during British rule, the system became highly rigid, leading to deep-seated inequalities and discrimination.

Two major communication and trade highways emerged in the 1st millennium BCE:

• Uttarapatha: Connected the northwest regions through the Ganga plains to eastern India.
• Dakṣhiṇapatha: Started from Kauśhāmbī and crossed the Vindhya Range to the far south.

• Eastern India: Cities like Śhiśhupalgarh (capital of Kalinga) emerged with strict square layouts, massive fortifications, and broad streets.
• Southern India: From around 400 BCE, urban centres and three major kingdoms emerged: the Cholas, the Cheras, and the Pānḍyas. Rich in resources (gemstones, gold, and spices), they engaged in extensive overseas trade.