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Sociology: Class 11 (Book 2) — Chapter 5: Indian Sociologists

1. Evolution of Sociology in India
Historical Context and Institutionalization

Sociology is a relatively young discipline, established in Europe about a century ago and introduced formally in India in the early 20th century.

  • Formal university teaching of sociology began in 1919 at the University of Bombay.
  • In the 1920s, the Universities of Calcutta and Lucknow initiated teaching and research programs in sociology and anthropology.
  • Early Indian sociologists had to adapt Western sociological frameworks to the unique historical, colonial, and cultural context of India.
The Pioneers of Indian Anthropology

Profile: L.K. Ananthakrishna Iyer (1861-1937)

  • Theoretical Framework: Self-taught anthropologist who pioneered ethnographic surveys in princely states under British administration.
  • Field Studies & Methodologies: Conducted comprehensive ethnographic surveys of Cochin and Mysore states; functioned as the unpaid Superintendent of Ethnography.
  • Key Terms / Concepts: Voluntary ethnography, state-sponsored social mapping.

Profile: Sarat Chandra Roy (1871-1942)

  • Theoretical Framework: Accidental anthropologist and lawyer who studied tribal customs to interpret laws for courts.
  • Field Studies & Methodologies: Intensive fieldwork among tribal communities of the Chhotanagpur region (Oraon, Mundas, and Kharias).
  • Key Terms / Concepts: Tribal customary law, founder of the journal Man in India (1922).
2. Govind Sadashiv Ghurye (1893-1983)
Biographical Profile and Institutional Contributions

Profile: G.S. Ghurye (1893-1983)

  • Theoretical Framework: Indological and diffusionist perspective; combined social anthropology and sociology into a composite discipline.
  • Field Studies & Methodologies: Textual analysis of classical Sanskrit literature combined with empirical studies on caste, tribes, and kinship.
  • Key Terms / Concepts: backward Hindus , segmental division, hierarchical division, endogamy.
Ghurye on Caste and Race

Ghurye provided a detailed critique of Herbert Risley's racial theory of caste in his seminal work Caste and Race in India (1932).

  • Risley's view: Caste originated in race; higher castes approximated Indo-Aryan traits, while lower castes belonged to non-Aryan aboriginal groups.
  • Ghurye's critique: Risley's thesis of upper castes being Aryan and lower castes being non-Aryan was broadly true only for northern India (Hindustan proper).
  • In other parts of India, inter-group differences in anthropometric measurements were not systematic, indicating long-term racial mixing.
Ghurye's Six Features of Caste
  1. Segmental Division: Society is divided into closed, mutually exclusive compartments decided strictly by birth.
  2. Hierarchical Division: Every caste is strictly unequal to every other, arranged in a graded hierarchy.
  3. Restrictions on Social Interaction: Elaborate rules governing food sharing and social contact, based on ideas of purity and pollution .
  4. Differential Rights and Duties: Castes have distinct religious and secular rights and obligations.
  5. Restricted Choice of Occupation: Occupations are hereditary and function as a rigid division of labor.
  6. Strict Restrictions on Marriage: Enforced through caste endogamy (marrying within the caste) and rules of exogamy .
The Tribal Debate: Ghurye vs. Elwin

During the 1930s and 1940s, a major debate emerged regarding the place of tribal societies in India.

  • Protectionists (Verrier Elwin): Believed tribals were primitive groups with distinct cultures who needed state protection from Hindu exploitation and cultural degradation.
  • Nationalists (Ghurye): Argued that tribals were backward Hindus who had been in constant interaction with mainstream Hinduism over a long period and should be integrated into the development process.
3. Dhurjati Prasad Mukerji (1894-1961)
Biographical Profile and Theoretical Framework

Profile: D.P. Mukerji (1894-1961)

  • Theoretical Framework: Marxist method of social analysis; focused on the synthesis of tradition and modernity.
  • Field Studies & Methodologies: Historical-sociological analysis of Indian culture, music, and social traditions.
  • Key Terms / Concepts: living tradition , shruti , smriti , anubhava .
Tradition and Change

D.P. Mukerji argued that the crucial distinctive feature of India was its social system, which was over-developed compared to its political and economic dimensions.

  • An Indian sociologist must first be an Indian, sharing in the folk-ways, mores, customs, and traditions to understand the social system.
  • Tradition is a living tradition : it maintains links with the past while adapting to the present and evolving over time.
  • Indian society is group-oriented rather than individualistic; social action is driven by group, sect, or caste-action.
Principles of Social Change

Mukerji identified three principles of change recognized in Indian traditions:

  1. Shruti: Revealed scriptures and high traditions.
  2. Smriti: Remembered traditions and legal codes.
  3. Anubhava: Personal experience, which Mukerji identified as the revolutionary principle of change that quickly flowers into collective experience (e.g., the Bhakti and Sufi movements).
4. Akshay Ramanlal Desai (1915-1994)
Biographical Profile and Marxist Sociology

Profile: A.R. Desai (1915-1994)

  • Theoretical Framework: Consistent Marxist analysis of social institutions, nationalism, and the state.
  • Field Studies & Methodologies: Historical-materialist analysis of Indian nationalism, peasant struggles, and agrarian relations.
  • Key Terms / Concepts: Myth of the welfare state, Marxist theory of the state.
Critique of the Welfare State

In his essay 'The myth of the welfare state', Desai provided a detailed critique of the capitalist welfare state using specific test criteria.

  • A true welfare state must be a positive state (not laissez-faire ), democratic, and involve a mixed economy.
  • Desai's test criteria include: freedom from poverty/discrimination, removal of income inequalities, subservience of profit motive to community needs, stable development, and full employment.
  • Desai concluded that modern capitalist states (like the USA and Britain) fail these criteria, making the welfare state a myth.
5. Mysore Narasimhachar Srinivas (1916-1999)
Biographical Profile and Methodological Contributions

Profile: M.N. Srinivas (1916-1999)

  • Theoretical Framework: Structural-functionalist perspective; emphasized intensive fieldwork and participant observation.
  • Field Studies & Methodologies: Intensive fieldwork in Rampura village near Mysore; studied the Coorgs of South India.
  • Key Terms / Concepts: Sanskritisation, dominant caste, village studies.
Srinivas on the Indian Village

Srinivas was instrumental in making village studies the dominant field in Indian sociology during the 1950s and 1960s.

  • He argued against the view of British administrator-anthropologists who saw Indian villages as unchanging, self-sufficient little republics .
  • Srinivas showed that villages had experienced considerable historical change and were integrated into regional economic, social, and political networks.
  • The Dumont-Srinivas Debate: Louis Dumont argued that the village was not a significant social category and that institutions like caste were far more important. Srinivas countered that the village was a vital, unifying social entity in rural life.
6. Conceptual and Comparative Matrices
Conceptual Definition & Characterization Matrix
Core Sociological Concept Baseline Definition / Phenomenon Social Manifestation / Practice Impact on Social Stratification & Power
Caste (Ghurye) Segmental and hierarchical division of society based on birth. Enforced through endogamy, occupational restrictions, and purity/pollution rules. Reinforces rigid social inequality and unequal distribution of rights/duties.
Living Tradition (D.P. Mukerji) A dynamic system of social practices that maintains links with the past while adapting to the present. Manifests as collective group action, folk-ways, and adaptation of customs. Shapes social change through internal non-economic factors like anubhava.
Welfare State (A.R. Desai) A state that actively intervenes in the economy and society to ensure citizen well-being. Manifests as mixed economy, democratic institutions, and social security programs. Often acts as a myth that fails to resolve capitalist inequalities and class divisions.
Indian Village (M.N. Srinivas) A key social entity and site of research representing rural social life and identity. Manifests as inter-caste relations, agricultural cooperation, and regional networks. Serves as a unifying identity that challenges the view of static, isolated 'little republics'.
Sociological Debates Matrix
Debate Theme Position A (Colonial / Western View) Position B (Indian Nationalist / Sociological View) Structural Significance
Tribal Integration Protectionists (British administrators) argued tribes are distinct, primitive groups needing state protection from Hindu exploitation. Nationalists (Ghurye) argued tribes are 'backward Hindus' who must be integrated into mainstream development. Highlighted the tension between cultural preservation and national modernization.
Caste and Race Herbert Risley argued caste originated in racial differences, with higher castes being Indo-Aryan and lower castes being non-Aryan. G.S. Ghurye argued racial purity was only preserved in North India, while the rest of India experienced extensive racial mixing. Challenged the biological/racial justification of caste hierarchy.
The Village as a Concept Louis Dumont argued the village is merely a physical collection of people; social institutions like caste are the true units of analysis. M.N. Srinivas argued the village is a vital social entity with historical unity, serving as a key site for ethnographic research. Established the methodological importance of fieldwork in independent India.